The
United States Declaration of Independence was an act of the
Second Continental Congress, adopted on
July 4,
1776, which declared that the
Thirteen Colonies in
North America were "Free and Independent States" and that "all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved." The document, formally entitled
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America, written chiefly by
Thomas Jefferson, explained the justifications for separation from the British crown, and was an expansion of
Richard Henry Lee's
Resolution (passed by Congress in
July 2), which first proclaimed independence. An engrossed copy of the Declaration was signed by most of the delegates on
August 2 and is now on display in the
National Archives and Records Administration in
Washington, D.C.
The Declaration is considered to be a preceding founding document of the later formed
United States of America, where July 4 is celebrated as
Independence Day. At the time the Declaration was issued, the American colonies were "united" in declaring their independence from Great Britain. Although the Continental Congress acted in many ways as a national government, and had been doing so before the Declaration was made, its right to do so wasn't validated until the ratification of the
Articles of Confederation in 1781.
John Hancock was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence.
US President Abraham Lincoln succinctly explained the central importance of the Declaration to
American history in his
Gettysburg Address of
1863:
» "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."
Analysis
Influences
Jefferson's own draft preamble to the Maryland Constitution influenced the Declaration of Independence. In turn, Thomas Paine's Rights of Man influenced that preamble.
Philosophical background
The Preamble of the Declaration is influenced by the spirit of
republicanism, which was used as the basic framework for liberty. In addition, it reflects
Enlightenment philosophy, including the concepts of
natural law, and
self-determination. Ideas and even some of the phrasing was taken directly from the writings of Scottish philosopher
John Locke.
Thomas Paine's
Common Sense had been widely read and provided a simple, clear case for independence that many found compelling. According to Jefferson, the purpose of the Declaration was "not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of . . . but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent, and to justify ourselves in the independent stand we're compelled to take."
International law
Armitage (2002) examines the Declaration of Independence in the context of late-18th-century
international law and argues its legitimacy derived more from its broad appeal to diverse audiences than from its comportment with extant principles of international relations. He analyzes the Declaration's structure and fundamental arguments, concluding that its partial reliance on an individual natural rights political discourse seemed outdated, if not obsolete, in an international arena where
positivist jurisprudential philosophy was increasingly becoming the preferred referent. Armitage highlights the consequent apprehension felt by leading American statesmen during 1776-79, including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as the manifesto circulated throughout Europe receiving an ambiguous reception at best. Nonetheless, with the
de jure acceptance of US independence in the
Treaty of Paris (1783), arguments regarding the legal foundations of the Declaration of Independence became irrelevant, as its objective and its success as a document written to appeal to internal as well as foreign audiences became more widely recognized and admired.
Practical effects
As a proclamation, the Declaration was used as a propaganda tool, in which the Americans tried to establish clear reasons for their rebellion that might persuade reluctant colonists to join them and establish their just cause to foreign governments that might lend them aid. The Declaration also served to unite the members of the Continental Congress. The Declaration of Independence was also used as a foreign policy announcement; since the United States were now separate and independent nations, the war was escalated from a civil war to a war of independence, and therefore foreign nations who were enemies of Great Britain were free to intervene, like the French. One in five colonists
(External Link
)(calling themselves loyalists or Tories) refused to accept the Declaration and continued to profess their allegiance to the British monarchy, with over 700 of them signing their own "declaration" in a pub on Wall Street
(External Link). Many were upper class landowners and businessmen who felt the new republic would strip them of their land rights and social class.
Influence on other documents
The Declaration of Independence contains many of the founding fathers' fundamental principles, some of which were later codified in the
United States Constitution. It was the model for the 1848
Seneca Falls Convention Declaration of Sentiments which proclaimed the rights of women using the same language. It has also influenced people to exercise their
Right of Revolution to overthrow totalitarian governments such was the case in 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which was also inspected by Jefferson, then the U.S. ambassador in Paris, before acceptance during the
French Revolution. In addition, it has been used as the model of a number of later documents such as the declarations of independence of
Vietnam and
Rhodesia. In the United States, the Declaration has been frequently quoted in political speeches, such as
Abraham Lincoln's
Gettysburg Address and
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s
I Have a Dream speech.
The Declaration published outside the Thirteen Colonies
The Declaration of Independence was first published in full outside North America by the
Belfast Newsletter on the 23rd of August, 1776. A copy of the document was being transported to London via ship when bad weather forced the vessel to port at
Derry. The document was then carried on horseback to
Belfast for the continuation of its voyage to England, whereupon copy was made for the Belfast newspaper.
The first edition of the Declaration of Independence was reprinted at London in the August 1776 issue of
The Gentleman's Magazine.
The Gentleman's Magazine had been following American issues for many years, and its editors (Edward Cave and, subsequently, David Henry) were close to Benjamin Franklin in particular, publishing several of his writings on electricity. The Declaration itself was followed in the September issue by "Thoughts on the late Declaration of the American Congress", signed only "An Englishman". The author identified certain absurdities (as he saw them) contained in the now famous words of the preamble. Most notably, he pointed out the document's inconsistency with the fact that slavery and government was still being practiced in America (emphasized in the following excerpt):
We hold (they say) these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal. In what are they created equal? Is it in size, understanding, figure, moral or civil accomplishments, or situation of life? Every plough-man knows that they're not created equal in any of these....That every man hath an unalienable right to liberty; and here the words, as it happens, are not nonsense, but they're not true: slaves there are in America, and where there are slaves, there liberty is alienated.
If the Creator hath endowed man with an unalienable right to liberty, no reason in the world will justify the abridgement of that liberty, and a man hath a right to do everything that he thinks proper without controul or restraint; and upon the same principle, there can be no such things as servants, subjects, or government of any kind whatsoever. In a word, every law that hath been in the world since the formation of Adam, gives the lie to this self-evident truth, (as they're pleased to term it) ; because every law, divine or human, that's or hath been in the world, is an abridgement of man's liberty. (The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. 46, pp. 403–404)
Distribution and copies
After its adoption by Congress on
July 4, a handwritten draft signed by the President of Congress
John Hancock and the Secretary
Charles Thomson was then sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of
John Dunlap. Through the night between 150 and 200 copies were made, now known as "
Dunlap broadsides". One was sent to
George Washington on July 6, who had it read to his troops in New York on July 9. A copy reached London on August 10. The 25 Dunlap broadsides still known to exist are the oldest surviving copies of the document. The original handwritten copy hasn't survived.
On July 19, Congress ordered a copy be "engrossed" (hand written in
fair script on parchment by an expert penman) for the delegates to sign. This engrossed copy was produced by
Timothy Matlack, assistant to the secretary of Congress. Most of the delegates signed it on August 2, 1776, in geographic order of their colonies from north to south, though some delegates were not present and had to sign later. Late signers were Elbridge Gerry, Oliver Wolcott, Lewis Morris, Thomas McKean, and Matthew Thornton (who, because of a lack of space, was unable to place his signature on the top right of the signing area with the other New Hampshire delegates, William Whipple and
Josiah Bartlett, and had to place his signature on the lower right). Two delegates never signed. The first was Robert R. Livingston of New York, a member of the original drafting committee. Livingston was present for the vote on July 2 but returned to New York before the August 2 signing. The second was John Dickinson, a member of the Continental Congress from Pennsylvania, who was against separation from Great Britain and labored to change the language of the Declaration of Indpendence to leave open the possibility of a reconciliation with Great Britain. As new delegates joined the congress, they were also allowed to sign. A total of 56 delegates eventually signed (see ). This engrossed copy is now on display at the National Archives.
On January 18, 1777, the Continental Congress ordered that the declaration be more widely distributed. The second printing was made by
Mary Katharine Goddard. The first printing had included only the names
John Hancock and
Charles Thomson. Goddard's printing was the first to list all signatories.
In 1823, printer William J. Stone was commissioned by Secretary of State
John Quincy Adams to create an engraving of the document essentially identical to the original. Stone's copy was made using a wet-ink transfer process, where the surface of the document was moistened, and some of the original ink transferred to the surface of a copper plate which was then etched so that copies could be run off the plate on a press. Because of poor conservation of the 1776 document through the 19th century, Stone's engraving, rather than the original, has become the basis of most modern reproductions
The first German translation of the Declaration was published July 6-8, 1776, as a
broadside in unfolded form by the printing press of Steiner & Cist of Philadelphia.
Gustafson (2004) traces the paths taken by the original manuscript copies of the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights prior to being placed permanently in the National Archives. From 1776 to 1921 the Declaration moved from one city to another and to different public buildings until placed in the Department of State library. The Constitution was never exhibited, and the Bill of Rights' provenance up to 1938 is largely unknown. From 1921 to 1952 the Declaration and the Constitution were at the Library of Congress, and the National Archives held the Bill of Rights.
In 1952, the librarian of Congress and the US archivist agreed on moving the Declaration and the Constitution to the National Archives. Since 1953 the three documents have been called the Charters of Freedom. Encased in 1951, by the early 1980s deterioration threatened the documents. In 2001, using the latest in preservation technology, conservators treated the documents and re-encased them in encasements made of titanium and aluminum. They were put on display again with the opening of the remodeled National Archives Rotunda in 2003.
Annotated text of the Declaration
The declaration isn't divided into formal sections; but it's often discussed as consisting of five parts:
Introduction, the
Preamble, the
Indictment of
George III, the
Denunciation of the British people, and the
Conclusion.
Introduction
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
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In CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
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Preamble
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights. This section represents the Framers' disappointment that their attempts were unsuccessful.
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Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we've conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. |
Conclusion
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that
the British have produced such conditions, and by necessity the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states.
The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
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We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they're Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they've full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. |
Signatures
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26), was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty-six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from North to South):
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- New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
- Massachusetts: Samuel Adams, John Adams, John Hancock, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry
- Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
- Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
- New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
- New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
- Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
- Delaware: George Read, Caesar Rodney, Thomas McKean
- Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
- Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
- North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
- South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton
- Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton
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Differences between draft and final versions
The Declaration went through three stages from conception to final adoption:
Jefferson's original draft.
Jefferson's draft with revisions from Franklin and Adams. This was the document submitted by the Committee of Five to the Congress.
The final version, which included changes made by the full Congress.
Jefferson's original draft included a denunciation of the slave trade ("He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life & liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither."), which was later edited out by Congress, as was a lengthy criticism of the English people and parliament. According to Jefferson:
"The pusillanimous idea that we'd friends in England worth keeping terms with, still haunted the minds of many. For this reason those passages which conveyed censures on the people of England were struck out, lest they should give them offense."
Jefferson remained upset over the removal of this condemnation of slavery (despite being a slave owner himself) until his death.
Popular culture
A fictionalized (but generally historically accurate) version of how the Declaration came about is the musical play (and 1972 movie) 1776, which is usually termed a "musical comedy" but deals frankly with the political issues, especially how disagreement over the institution of slavery almost defeated the Declaration's adoption. The Declaration of Independence is also the central subject of the 2004 Disney film National Treasure, starring Nicolas Cage and Diane Kruger. In the film, a hidden treasure map on the back of the Declaration leads treasure hunters to a cache of wealth hidden from the British by Freemasons during the American Revolutionary War.
Anticipating the musical 1776 in a satirical way, Stan Freberg included a segment about the signing of the Declaration in his album The United States of America Volume One to satirize the then-recent "Red Scare". Freberg affected an aged voice to play Franklin, who is skeptical about signing the Declaration document: "You go to a few 'harmless' meetings; sign a few 'harmless' papers; and forget all about it. Years later you wind up in front of a Committee!" Freberg then goes on to sing a song called "A Man Can't Be Too Careful What He Signs These Days". Franklin also asks Jefferson about his spelling. "Life, liberty, and the purfuit of happineff"? (This is a reference to the long S.) Jefferson assures him that this is in, "very in."
Myths
There are several popular myths concerning the Declaration of Independence.
A misconception about the Declaration of Independence is that it was the original document by which the Colonies articulated their rejection of British rule. In fact, the Lee Resolution had already declared independence on July 2. Because the Declaration of Independence is dated July 4, 1776 (the date of its approval and adoption by the Continental Congress), many people believe it was signed on that date—in fact, most of the delegates signed the Declaration on August 2, 1776.
While the July 4 Declaration differed from the Lee Resolution in that it asserted unanimity, the abstaining colony of New York didn't pass its own vote for independence until July 9.
A story repeated on National Public Radio during the annual reading of the Declaration on the Morning Edition program was that King George III's diary entry for July 4, 1776, read: "Nothing of importance happened today". In fact, George III never kept a diary. The error was corrected in 2006. (External Link)
Contrary to popular belief, the Declaration wasn't signed in public as a group. The delegates actually signed it in secret, little by little.
External results
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